Protesters mach against public health restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, including one woman carrying an anti-vaccine placard. Credit: Becker1999. CC BY 2.0.

The layered, Swiss cheese model for mitigating online misinformation

By Leticia Bode, Emily Vraga, May 13, 2021

https://thebulletin.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/lockdown-protest-150x150.jpg
https://thebulletin.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/lockdown-protest-150x150.jpg

Protesters mach against public health restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, including one woman carrying an anti-vaccine placard. Credit: Becker1999. CC BY 2.0.

Loading...

References:

Altay, S., A. S. Hacquin, and H. Mercier. 2020. “Why do so few people share fake news? It hurts their reputation.” New Media & Society. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444820969893?journalCode=nmsa

Associated Press/NORC. 2020. “State of the Facts 2020: COVID-19.” Associated Press/NORC, October 20. https://apnorc.org/projects/state-of-the-facts-2020-covid-19/

Banas, J. A., and S.A. Rains. 2010. “A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory.” Communication Monographs77 (3). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03637751003758193

Baum, M., K. Ognyanova, H. Chwe, A. Quintana, R.H. Perlis, D. Lazer, J. Green et al. 2021. “The COVID States Project #14: Misinformation and vaccine acceptance.”  OSF. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/w974j

Bode, L. 2020. User Correction as a Tool in the Battle Against Social Media Misinformation. Georgetown Law Technology Review. 4  (367). https://georgetownlawtechreview.org/user-correction-as-a-tool-in-the-battle-against-social-media-misinformation/GLTR-07-2020/

Bode, L. and E.K. Vraga, 2015. “In related news, that was wrong: The correction of misinformation through related stories functionality in social media.” Journal of Communication65 (4): 619-638. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jcom.12166

Bode, L. and E.K. Vraga, 2020. “Americans are fighting coronavirus misinformation on social media.” The Washington Post, May 7. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/05/07/americans-are-fighting-coronavirus-misinformation-social-media/

Bode, L., E.K. Vraga, and M. Tully. 2020. “Do the right thing: Tone may not affect correction of misinformation on social media.” Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review June 11. https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/do-the-right-thing-tone-may-not-affect-correction-of-misinformation-on-social-media/

Bolsen, T., and J. N. Druckman, 2015. “Counteracting the politicization of science.” Journal of Communication 65 (5): 745-769. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcom.12171

Brown, M. 2020. “Fact check: 5G technology is not linked to coronavirus.” USA Today April 23. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/04/23/fact-check-5-g-technology-not-linked-coronavirus/3006152001/

(CDC) US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2021. “Myths and Facts about COVID-19 Vaccines.” Mar. 11. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention March 11.  https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/facts.html

Clayton, K., S. Blair, J.A. Busam, S. Forstner, J. Glance, G. Green, A. Kawata.  2020. “Real solutions for fake news? Measuring the effectiveness of general warnings and fact-check tags in reducing belief in false stories on social media.” Political Behavior 42 (4): 1073-1095. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-019-09533-0

De Meo, P., E. Ferrara, G. Fiumara, and A. Provetti. 2014. “On Facebook, Most Ties Are Weak.” Communications of the ACM 57 (11): 78-84. https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2014/11/179820-on-facebook-most-ties-are-weak/fulltext

Ecker, U. K., J.L Hogan, and S. Lewandowsky. 2017. “Reminders and repetition of misinformation: Helping or hindering its retraction?” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6 (2): 185-192. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211368116301838

Fazio, L. K., N.M. Brashier, B.K. Payne, and E.J. Marsh. 2015. “Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144 (5): 993. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/xge-0000098.pdf

Fichera, A. 2020. “Report Resurrects Baseless Claim that Coronavirus Was Bioengineered.” Factcheck.org September 17.  https://www.factcheck.org/2020/09/report-resurrects-baseless-claim-that-coronavirus-was-bioengineered/

Granovetter, M. S. 1973. “The strength of weak ties.” American Journal of Sociology 78 (6): 1360-1380. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2776392?seq=1

Guillory, J. J., and L. Geraci. 2013. “Correcting erroneous inferences in memory: The role of source credibility.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 2 (4): 201-209. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211368113000752

Hall Jamieson, K. 2021. “How to Debunk Misinformation about COVID, Vaccines and Masks.” Scientific American April 1.  https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-debunk-misinformation-about-covid-vaccines-and-masks/

Hyland-Wood, B., J. Gardner, J. Leask, and U.K. Ecker. 2021. “Toward effective government communication strategies in the era of COVID-19.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8 (1): 1-11. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-020-00701-w

iamhere international. 2021. “Our Mission” iamhere international. https://iamhereinternational.com/.

Kunda, Z. 1990. “The case for motivated reasoning.” Psychological Bulletin 108 (3): 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480

Lazer, D., D.J. Ruck, A. Quintana, S. Shugars, K. Joseph, N. Grinberg, R.J. Gallagher et al. 2021. “The COVID States Project #18: Fake news on Twitter.”OSF. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/vzb9t

Mackay, I.M. 2020. “The Swiss cheese infographic that went viral.” Virology Down Under December 26.  https://virologydownunder.com/the-swiss-cheese-infographic-that-went-viral/.

Malecki, K. M., J.A. Keating, and N. Safdar. 2021. “Crisis communication and public perception of COVID-19 risk in the era of social media.” Clinical Infectious Diseases 72 (4): 697-702. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/72/4/697/5858208

Margolin, D. B., A. Hannak, and  I. Weber. 2018. “Political fact-checking on Twitter: When do corrections have an effect?” Political Communication 35 (2): 196-219. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584609.2017.1334018?journalCode=upcp20

Marwick, A. E. 2018. “Why do people share fake news? A sociotechnical model of media effects.” Georgetown Law Technology Review 2 (2): 474-512. https://georgetownlawtechreview.org/why-do-people-share-fake-news-a-sociotechnical-model-of-media-effects/GLTR-07-2018/

Myers West, S. 2018. “Censored, suspended, shadowbanned: User interpretations of content moderation on social media platforms.” New Media & Society 20 (11): 4366-4383. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444818773059

Nagler, R. H. 2014. “Adverse outcomes associated with media exposure to contradictory nutrition messages.” Journal of health communication 19 (1): 24-40. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24117281/

Pennycook, G., Z. Epstein, M. Mosleh, A.A. Arechar, D. Eckles, and D.G. Rand. 2021. “Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online.” Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03344-2

Petri, W. 2020. “COVID-19 vaccines were developed in record time – but are these game-changers safe?” The Conversation November 20. https://theconversation.com/covid-19-vaccines-were-developed-in-record-time-but-are-these-game-changers-safe-150249

Pew. 2019b. “Americans Are Wary of the Role Social Media Sites Play in Delivering the News.” Pew Research Center October 2. https://www.journalism.org/2019/10/02/americans-are-wary-of-the-role-social-media-sites-play-in-delivering-the-news/

Reuters. 2020. “Fact check: Lung tissue of an ‘aborted male foetus’ is not in the vaccine for coronavirus.” Reuters November 16. https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-factcheck-vaccine/fact-check-lung-tissue-of-an-aborted-male-foetus-is-not-in-the-vaccine-for-coronavirus-idUSKBN27W2I7

Shane, T., and P. Noel. 2020. “Data deficits: why we need to monitor the demand and supply of information in real time.” First Draft News September 28. https://firstdraftnews.org/long-form-article/data-deficits/

Steenhuysen, J. 2021. “Fauci says U.S. political divisions contributed to 500,000 dead from COVID-19.” Reuters February 22.  https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-fauci/fauci-says-u-s-political-divisions-contributed-to-500000-dead-from-covid-19-idUSKBN2AM2O9

Tandoc Jr., E. C., D. Lim, and R. Ling. 2020. “Diffusion of disinformation: How social media users respond to fake news and why.” Journalism 21 (3): 381-398. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1464884919868325?journalCode=joua

Vosoughi, S., D. Roy, and S. Aral. 2018. “The spread of true and false news online.” Science 359 (6380): 1146-1151. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

Vraga, E. K., and L. Bode. 2017. “Using expert sources to correct health misinformation in social media.” Science Communication 39 (5): 621-645. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1075547017731776?journalCode=scxb

Vraga, E. K., and L. Bode. 2018. “I do not believe you: How providing a source corrects health misperceptions across social media platforms.” Information, Communication & Society 21 (10): 1337-1353. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1313883

Vraga, E. K., and L. Bode. 2020a. “Defining misinformation and understanding its bounded nature: Using expertise and evidence for describing misinformation.” Political Communication 37 (1): 136-144. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584609.2020.1716500?journalCode=upcp20

Vraga, E. K., and L. Bode. 2020b. “Correction as a Solution for Health Misinformation on Social Media.” American Journal of Public Health 110 (S3): S278-S280. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7532323/

Vraga, E. K., M. Tully, and L. Bode. 2020. “Empowering users to respond to misinformation about Covid-19.” Media and Communication 8 (2): 475-479. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/3200

Walter, N., and  R. Tukachinsky. 2020. “A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face of correction: How powerful is it, why does it happen, and how to stop it?” Communication Research 47 (2): 155-177. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0093650219854600

(WHO) World Health Organization. 2020. “Infodemic.” World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1

(WHO) World Health Organization. 2021. “WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard.” World Health Organization https://covid19.who.int/

Together, we make the world safer.

The Bulletin elevates expert voices above the noise. But as an independent nonprofit organization, our operations depend on the support of readers like you. Help us continue to deliver quality journalism that holds leaders accountable. Your support of our work at any level is important. In return, we promise our coverage will be understandable, influential, vigilant, solution-oriented, and fair-minded. Together we can make a difference.


Get alerts about this thread
Notify of
guest
0 Comments
Inline Feedbacks
View all comments

ALSO IN THIS ISSUE

RELATED POSTS